Ngadjuri: A Language Hidden

The Ngadjuri people are an Indigenous Australian ethnic and linguistic group situated traditionally in the areas North-East of Adelaide, the capital city of South Australia. The people have had as tumultuous a history as any other indigenous community in Australia, but their semi-isolation within the famed Flinders Ranges mountain range protected the community from the virtually total devastation that befell indigenous communities within the more hospitable regions, such as the neighbouring Kaurna, Peramangk, and Barngarla people.

Traditional Range of the Ngadjuri People & Language, as detailed by AIATSIS

Their language, known as Youngye, or Ngadjuri (more commonly the latter, named after the commonly accepted community name), is in a unique spot when it comes to languages, unlike most all other Australian indigenous communities, the Ngadjuri have opposed the active revival of their traditional language. As such, very little is known on the language.

Much of my knowledge of the community's relationship to their language comes from the lectures of Professor Susie Greenwood, and Professor Rob Amery, the former studied under the latter, who remains one of the leading experts on the languages of the Thura-Yura branch of indigenous Australian languages.

Professor Amery detailed in a 2022 lecture on the Kaurna language that the community elders were, in recent years, quite wary of their language falling outside of their control. This concept may seem alien to some, after all, since when does someone (or a small group) have a monopoly on their language?

This perspective is based in the rather unique notion of ownership present in most all Indigenous Australian groups, but virtually exclusive outside of the country. In this framework, people do not, and, to an extent, are incapable of owning land. Rather, land (or Country, as it is often known) is an independent entity, of a spiritual nature, which is connected to the people present on it, in a symbiotic relationship. People live on a section of land, and enforce the laws of the land. In the Indigenous perspective, the language, laws, and lore belong to the land, not the people on it, who are merely the ones acting in the interest of the land.

Classification

As a member of the Thura-Yura language family, Ngadjuri shares many words with languages such as Kaurna and Nukunu, its Western neighbours, but also with Peramangk, its Southern-most neighbouring language. Peramank is completely extinct, and acted as a lingua franca in the regions of the Adelaide Hills and Mt Lofty Ranges, where gatherings, rights, and trade was conducted between a large selection of nearby (and occasionally very distant) indigenous communities.

Thura-Yura Family Tree - Wikipedia (01/04/24)

Ngadjuri and Nukunu are currently unclassified in their placement on the Thura-Yura family tree, primarily due to their heavy levels of language loss. While studies are ongoing about Nukunu, the Ngadjuri desire to remain in full control of their language has greatly limited its study. Records indicate that a work was produced with the assistance of Prof. Rob Amery, which included an in-depth comparative analysis of a wide variety of Ngadjuri words, which would be instrumental in shedding light on the placement of Ngadjuri within the Thura-Yura tree. This work was printed, however, it was never distributed, or made available, by the request of the elders of the community.

There are theories as to the placement of Nukunu and Ngadjuri within the Thura-Yura tree. The tree is based upon the word for 'man' within the language, though nowadays this word is often extended semantically to mean 'people'. Within Luise A. Hercus' A Nukunu Dictionary, she details a chart (see blow) comparing a variety of Thura-Yura languages, in order to detail comparative elements that assist in language reconstruction. In this chart, we can see the word for 'man' present.

Chart Detailing Comparative Thura-Yura terms - A Nukunu Dictionary (1992)

Were we to simply use this chart, it is very clear that Nukunu fists in the Thura branch (though four words is not enough to prove this for a fact), Ngadjuri, however, sits in a unique position. In the words provided, we can see elements of both branches within Ngadjuri, placing it somewhere between the Thura and Yura branches.

'Tinda' displays the lack of lenition (reduction, and eventual loss of a phoneme) of the initial t-, which is present in the Yura languages Barngarla (Parnkalla) and Adnyamathanha. However, 'juri' displays partial lenition of the beginning th- sound, which, once again, is common in the Yura branch.

Furthermore, Hercus further states in her dictionary that Nukunu and Ngadjuri have a roughly 90% overlap in mutual intelligibility, and places both within the outdated Miru branch, which most closely corresponds to the modern Yura classification. Purely based on this data set, I would place Ngadjuri as a transitional language, accepting elements from both branches.

This, however, assumes that we accept this method of categorisation. Glottolog.org uses cardinal subgroups, and Hercus herself states that the family might be considered "so closely linked that it must be considered as one language ... further subgrouping into a number of dialects".

Thura-Yura Branch, Glottolog.org (08/04/2024)

Grammatical Elements

At this stage, I am only able to ascertain a scant few grammatical elements within Ngadjuri, though, as with other the rest of this article, I will update this section as I come across more information.

Lenition:
As described earlier, Ngadjuri displays partial lenition of the initial th-/t- becoming y- in some instances. Ngadjuri also displays sporadic lenition of the initial k-/g- before -i-, often resulting in a w-, and common lenition the initial p- into v-.

Word Formation:

With some exceptions, likely due to the abovementioned lenition and transcribal/documentation error, all words must begin with a consonant. Furthermore, all words must end with a vowel. It is currently unclear whether place names are beholden to this rule.

Word Order:
Most likely, Ngadjuri traditionally had a relatively free word order, as the other Thura-Yura languages had (and Kaurna still has). Within historic Kaurna, while the word order is (as described) most often free, there was a tendency to place the verb last, resulting in an SOV or OSV system, which is likely the case for Nagdjuri, and (within this article) it will be treated as such until further evidence proves otherwise. This system is entirely reliant upon a massive inventory of suffixes, within a case system which provide all necessary nuance. Given the small amount of surviving suffixes, however, it is likely that a standardised word order will need to be formed, in order to properly convey meaning, as occurred in Narungga, which chose SOV.

Suffixes:

Ngadjuri most likely historically contained many suffixes which supplement the free word order of the language to allow distinct meaning to be conveyed, much like Kaurna. Many of these suffixes are yet to be decoded/inferred from current language sources, and as such the ability to convey meaning in a free word order is limited. This will likely result in a revived Ngadjuri using a fixed word order, as occurred in the revived Nukunu.

The suffixes I have so far been able to retrieve/infer from the available data are as follows:

-owie (near/at water/a waterhole)

-nga (locative suffix)

This list will be amended upon retrieval of further information.

Compounding and Adding Suffixes:

Compounding is a common practice within indigenous languages, with Ngadjuri being no exception, though we have few definitive examples of compounds. With those examples we have, some rules can be ascertained:

1.Where the final word in the compound begins with k-/c- (i.e. -cowie), drop the initial consonant.

2. Where the suffix begins with a vowel, either drop the final vowel of the base, or the initial vowel of the suffix. This appears to be on a word by word basis.

This list will be amended upon retrieval of further information.

A Ngadjuri Dictionary

The following word list/dictionary will show each known word, followed by its components (where compounding is visible and can be determined), and the word class. All spellings will be as the original source, with alternative spellings shown and sourced below the definition(s).

The definition number will be listed in subscript before each definition, and the source in subscript following each definition (source list at the bottom of the page). If no source is present, it is an inferred word, and will be detailed upon. Lacuna will be detailed with a question mark within brackets.

Following the definition(s) further information may be provided, such as potential links to other languages, those languages most commonly mentioned will be abbreviated (abbreviations below).

Currently, I am not including words listed in Hercus 1992 A Nukunu Dictionary, as they are sourced from a work I am still trying to attain. Once this source is available to me, I will begin the painstaking process of updating this list with some 200+ words.

P.S. I know the formatting is a little spaced and wacky. It appears this site is not very conducive to this kind of material.

Edit (19/06/2024): added wittoo wittoo and a new source (Angus 1847)

Abbreviation list

KRN Kaurna

NRNG Narungga

NKN Nukunu

BNGL Barngarla

NAUO Nauo

ADYNY Adnyamathanha

KYN Kuyani

Aluri proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

Alury proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

bari noun

₍₁₎ river _(.org)

-Likely cognate with KRN ‘pari’ (river)

barti noun

₍₁₎ grub (usually, witchetty grub) _(JG)

-Likely cognate to NRNG ‘bardi’ & KRN ‘parti’ (grub)

bernatia noun

₍₁₎ men (post ritual circumcision) _(JG)

-This appears to be a man/men in a state of post-initiation

boobor-(?) adjective

₍₁₎ round

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Booborowie

Booborowie [boobor-owie] proper noun

₍₁₎Round Waterhole _(.org)

-Potentially related to KRN ‘pudna’ (waterhole)

Budlaroo proper noun

₍₁₎ boys/mens name from the mid 1800’s _(RN)

budli noun

₍₁₎ star _(.org)

-Likely cognate with NKN ‘purtli’, NAUO ‘burli’, NRNG ‘brudli & KRN ‘purli’ (star)

bulali noun

₍₁₎ stars (plural) _(.org)

calt-(?) noun

₍₁₎ sleepy lizard

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Caltowie’

-Lacuna potentially -a, as KRN ‘kalta’

-Likely cognate to KRN ‘kalta’ (sleepy lizard) & NRNG ‘galda’

Caltowie [calt-owie] proper noun

₍₁₎Sleepy Lizard Waterhole _(.org)

can-(?) noun

₍₁₎ rock

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Canowie’

-Potentially related to KRN ‘kanya’ & NKN ‘katnya’ (rock)

-Lacuna potentially ‘-ya’, as KRN & NKN

Canowie [can-owie] proper noun

₍₁₎ Rock Waterhole _(.org)

cowie noun

₍₁₎water _(.org)

-Likely cognate to KRN ‘kauwi’, NKN ‘kawi’ & NRNG ‘gawi’ (water)

-owie suffix (also sometimes -cowie)

₍₁₎waterhole

₍₂₎near water

₍₃₎water

-This is most commonly used in place names, and may be seen as a locative suffix

Likely cognate to NRNG ‘-awi’

Eeleeree proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

gudna noun

₍₁₎ poop; faeces _(.org)

-Likely cognate with KRN ‘kudna’, NRNG ‘gudna’ & ‘garda’, NAUO ‘guna’ & NKN ‘kutna’

Hillary proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

Hillery proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

juri noun

₍₁₎ man/men _(.org2)

-Cognate to NRNG ‘yardli’, KRN ‘yarli’, NKN ‘thuṛa‘, BNGL ‘yura’, ADYNY ‘yuṛa’, KYN ‘thuṛa’

Kartameru proper noun

₍₁₎ boys/mens name from the mid 1800’s _(RN)

koolu-(?) noun

₍₁₎ bank (of a river)

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Koolunga’

Koolunga [koolu-nga] proper noun

₍₁₎Red Banks of the Broughton River _(.org)

koolunga [koolu-nga] noun

₍₁₎ at the red bank (of a river)

₍₂₎ at the bank (of a river)

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Koolunga’, which includes the locative suffix ‘-nga’, potentially allowing for the term to be both a proper noun and a descriptive noun, if the Ngadjuri locative suffix follows the rules of KRN, NRNG and NKN.

Kudnarto proper noun

₍₁₎girls/womens name from the mid 1800’s _(RN)

Manuley proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

meju noun

₍₁₎men _(.org)

Likely cognate to KRN ‘miyu’ (man)

mena noun

₍₁₎ eye _(.org)

-Likely cognate with NRNG ‘minna’, KRN ‘miina’ & ‘mii’, NAUO ‘miila’ & NKN ‘miina’

Mimbara proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

Mirlgi noun

₍₁₎ a huge mythic spirit-creature _(NHEP)

-Likely cognate to BNGL ‘Marrlye’, a particular spirit-creature which takes the form of a bird

Muldabi proper noun

₍₁₎ something/someone (not physically present) to be avoided while carrying a dead body _(JG)

-Likely a malevolent being/spirit, as the term is found as such in NAUO.

mulka verb

₍₁₎ talk _(.org)

-Potential relation to NRNG ‘dhula’, but this is uncertain, as the NRNG recording may be flawed/mis-transcribed

mutanga verb

₍₁₎ dance _(.org)

-Potential relation to KRN ‘murtpanthi’ (jump/hop) but this is unlikely

nadlu pronoun

₍₁₎ we (1^st person plural pronoun, likely inclusive) _(.org2)

-Likely cognate with most other Thura-Yura pronouns, such as KRN & NRNG ‘ngadlu’ (we)

-nga suffix

₍₁₎ locative suffix

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Koolunga’, which appears to follow the rules of the locative suffixes ‘-ngka’ & ‘-ngga’ in KRN.

Ngadjuri [nadlu-juri] proper noun

₍₁₎We people _(.org)

₍₂₎We men (outdated) _(.org)

₍₃₎The Ngadjuri people

₍₄₎The Ngadjuri language

Orrorro proper noun

₍₁₎ Meeting Place of the Magpie (a town in the Northern Flinders Ranges)_(.org)

₍₂₎ Early Start (a town in the Northern Flinders Ranges) _(JG)

Potentially related to NRNG ‘murru’ (magpie)

-JG states that the term was believed to be an onomatopoeia of the wind rushing through trees, but that this is incorrect, and (2) is the correct definition.

-JG states that (2) stems from the time people would wake in order to hunt kangaroos on the plains.

ter-(?) adjective/verb

₍₁₎ hidden (adjective)

₍₂₎ to hide (verb)

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Terowie’

-Potentially related to KRN ‘tirra’ (obstacle), ‘tirrangka’ (hidden) & ‘tirranthi’ (to hide)

-Lacuna potentially -a, as KRN ‘tirra’

Terowie [ter-owie] proper noun

₍₁₎ Hidden Waterhole _(.org)

Wali Bari proper noun

₍₁₎ Milky Way _(.org)

-Likely cognate with KRN ‘Wardlipari’ & NKN ‘Waarli Pari’ (Milky Way)

Weera proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

Wildu proper noun

₍₁₎ The Southern Cross _(.org)

-Likely cognate with KRN ‘Wirltu Tidna (The Southern Cross)

winda noun

₍₁₎ owl _(.org)

-Likely cognate with KRN ‘winta, NRNG ‘winda’, NKN ‘winta’

wipaṛu noun

₍₁₎ a whip snake _(ME)

Wipaṛu proper noun

₍₁₎ the character Whip Snake, in the story ‘Wipaṛu’s journey towards Olary and back’ _(ME)

₍₂₎ the home of (1)_(ME)

wira noun

₍₁₎gum tree _(.org)

_-Likely cognate to KRN ‘wita’ (peppermint gum tree) & NRNG ‘wirra’ (gum tree forest)

Wirra proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

wittoo wittoo noun

₍₁₎ bullroarer_{(Angus p.99)}

- The name is potentially onomatopoeia

wurlie noun

₍₁₎ bark hut _(.org)

-Potential cognate with NKN ‘wartli’, NRNG ‘wardli’ & KRN ‘wardli’

Yacca noun

₍₁₎ firestick _(JG)

yar-(?) adjective

₍₁₎ wide

-This word is not confirmed, but is suggested by the presence of ‘Yarcowie’

-Potentially related to KRN ‘yarru’ (wide) & ‘yarnta’ (large; wide)

-Lacuna potentially -u, as KRN ‘yarru’

Yarcowie [yar-cowie] proper noun

₍₁₎ Wide Water _(.org)

Yardna-walpu proper noun

₍₁₎ Mount Victor _(ME)

yardna-walpu noun

₍₁₎ backbone (of a snake) _(ME)

Yilrea proper noun

₍₁₎ a Ngadjuri surname _(.org2)

Dictionary Source List

(.org) http://www.ngadjuripeople.com.au/, ngadjuri_people_aboriginal_corporation- (no date) Language. Available at: https://www.ngadjuri.org.au/5LANGUAGE.html (Accessed: 1 April 2024).

(.org2) http://www.ngadjuripeople.com.au/, ngadjuri_people_aboriginal_corporation- (no date) Language. Available at: https://www.ngadjuri.org.au/2NAMES.html (Accessed: 1 April 2024).

(Angus) Angus, G.F. (1847) ‘Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand’

(JG) JGray, J. (1930) ‘Notes on the Native Tribe Formerly Present at Orroroo, South Australia’, The South Australian Naturalist, 12(1), pp. 4–6.

(ME) McEntee, J.C. (2016) ‘25 The travels of Wipaṛu the Whip Snake’, in Language, land and song: Studies in honour of Luise Hercus, pp. 358–376. Available at: https://elpublishing.org/language-land-and-song/ (Accessed: 02 April 2024).

(NHEP) Berndt, R.M. (1985) ‘10: Traditional Aborigines ’, in Natural history of Eyre Peninsula. Adelaide: Royal Society of South Australia, pp. 127–138. Available at: https://www.elliston.sa.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0028/327466/NHoEP.pdf (Accessed: 01 April 2024).

Search This Blog

Linguist's Library